Emperor Caligula's Consul Horse: The Strange Tale of Incitatus

What if I told you a horse once lived better than most Roman citizens and was allegedly appointed to political office? While today’s politicians might be accused of various excesses, none have yet attempted to install their favorite steed as a government official. Yet in the annals of ancient Rome, Emperor Caligula’s horse Incitatus stands as perhaps history’s most pampered equine, complete with a marble stall, servants, and—if the ancient historians are to be believed—a brush with political power that scandalized Rome.

The story of Incitatus isn’t just a curious footnote in Roman history. It’s a tale that has captivated imaginations for nearly two millennia, blurring the lines between historical fact, political satire, and outright myth. Was Caligula truly mad enough to elevate a horse to consul, ancient Rome’s highest elected position? Or does this extraordinary claim reveal something deeper about power, excess, and how societies criticize their leaders?

The story of Incitatus reveals much about Roman politics, imperial excess, and the timeless bond between powerful leaders and their horses. From war mount to political statement, this remarkable animal’s legacy offers a fascinating window into the ancient world—and the timeless human tendency to use animals as symbols in our political discourse.

The Historical Context

Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus—better known by his childhood nickname “Caligula” or “little boot”—ascended to the imperial throne in 37 CE amid great optimism. The young emperor was initially popular, seen as a welcome change after the increasingly paranoid reign of Emperor Tiberius. This honeymoon period, however, was short-lived.

Within a year, Caligula’s rule descended into tyranny marked by extravagance, cruelty, and behavior so erratic that many contemporary and modern historians have questioned his sanity. It was against this backdrop of imperial excess that the story of Incitatus unfolded.

In Roman society, horses held a position of tremendous importance. The Roman military relied heavily on cavalry, with war horses representing not just military assets but symbols of power and prestige. Romans celebrated horses through chariot racing at the Circus Maximus—the empire’s most popular spectator sport—where successful horses could achieve celebrity status rivaling modern athletes.

Typically, even the finest military mounts and racing champions received practical care: adequate stabling, quality feed, and attentive grooming to maintain their value and performance. Elite horses might enjoy better quarters and specialized attendants, but their treatment remained utilitarian, befitting animals bred for specific purposes.

The political climate of Caligula’s reign created the perfect conditions for Incitatus’s extraordinary story. The Roman elite were increasingly alarmed by the emperor’s behavior, while ordinary citizens whispered about his extravagances. The Senate—once Rome’s governing body—had been reduced to a ceremonial institution rubber-stamping imperial decrees. In this atmosphere of declining republican values and unchecked imperial power, the tale of a horse living in luxury while ordinary Romans struggled became a powerful political metaphor.

Understanding this context is crucial for appreciating why Incitatus wasn’t just an unusually pampered animal—he became a living symbol of imperial excess and the corruption of Rome’s political traditions. His story would be preserved not merely as a historical curiosity, but as a cautionary tale about the dangers of absolute power and the degradation of cherished institutions.

Incitatus: The Facts We Know

What do we actually know about this famous horse? Separating historical fact from sensationalized storytelling requires examining the primary sources with a critical eye.

Incitatus, whose name translates to “Charger” or “Galloper” in Latin, was likely a Spanish or North African breed—prized bloodlines in Roman racing and military circles. While no contemporary descriptions of his appearance survive, he was almost certainly a stallion of exceptional quality, as Caligula was known to favor only the finest horses for his personal stables.

According to Suetonius, a Roman historian writing about 80 years after these events, Incitatus lived in unprecedented luxury. His stable featured marble walls, a feeding trough carved from ivory, and purple blankets made from the same expensive dyed fabric reserved for imperial garments. Suetonius records that the horse wore collars decorated with precious gems and ate from gold dishes.

More extraordinary still, Incitatus reportedly had an establishment befitting a noble Roman: a fully-furnished house, slaves dedicated to his care, and furniture for entertaining guests. Suetonius claims that people were invited to dine at the horse’s “house,” with Incitatus himself “invited” by the emperor to the feasts.

The most reliable accounts suggest that Incitatus began his career as either a military mount or—more likely—a successful racehorse. His elevated status came after catching Caligula’s volatile fancy. The emperor was known to be passionate about chariot racing, often spending days at the Circus Maximus and socializing with charioteers rather than attending to state business.

Caligula’s attachment to Incitatus appears genuine. Contemporary accounts describe the emperor taking extraordinary measures to ensure the horse wasn’t disturbed before races—including silencing entire neighborhoods near the horse’s quarters by imperial decree. Soldiers would be dispatched the night before races to enforce silence so that Incitatus could rest undisturbed.

Unlike some aspects of Caligula’s reign that may have been exaggerated by hostile historians, the lavish treatment of Incitatus is mentioned by multiple sources, suggesting there is a core of truth to these accounts. The horse’s privileged lifestyle represented an extreme version of the special treatment always afforded to exceptional equines—taken to absurd lengths by an emperor increasingly disconnected from Roman values of restraint and propriety.

The Consul Horse Controversy

The most sensational claim about Incitatus—that Caligula intended to make him a consul of Rome—requires careful examination. This allegation appears in the writings of both Suetonius and Dio Cassius, though with subtle differences that provide important context.

Suetonius writes: “It is even said that he planned to make his horse Incitatus a consul.” The phrasing “it is even said” (traditur) indicates Suetonius himself considered this secondhand information or rumor. Dio Cassius, writing a century later, states more definitively that Caligula “promised to appoint his horse, Incitatus, to the consulship.”

Modern historians generally interpret these claims in one of three ways:

First, as political satire that became accepted as fact through repetition. Roman writers excelled at using outrageous stories to criticize emperors they couldn’t safely critique directly. The notion of a horse as consul perfectly symbolized how the once-prestigious republican office had been debased under imperial rule.

Second, as a misunderstanding of Caligula’s provocative sense of humor. Several accounts suggest the emperor made the consul comment as a deliberate insult to the Senate, implying that even his horse could perform senatorial duties—highlighting how meaningless these positions had become.

Third, as evidence of Caligula’s mental instability. Some historians do accept that Caligula may have seriously contemplated the appointment, particularly as his behavior became increasingly erratic in the later years of his reign.

What’s particularly telling is that contemporary Romans found the story plausible. By 40 CE, the consulship—once Rome’s highest elected position with genuine power—had become largely ceremonial. Emperors regularly appointed favorites regardless of qualification, and the term of service had been reduced from a year to as little as two months, allowing multiple appointees annually.

Whether literal truth or political metaphor, the story revealed Romans’ anxiety about their declining political institutions. That a horse could credibly be discussed as a consul demonstrated how far Rome had fallen from its republican ideals. The consul story became the most enduring part of Incitatus’s legacy precisely because it crystallized these fears about imperial excess and institutional decay.

The Symbolic Significance

Beyond the sensational details of marble stalls and political appointments, Incitatus serves as a powerful symbol that has resonated across centuries. His story transcends mere historical curiosity to become a lasting metaphor for political criticism and imperial excess.

In Roman society, such extravagance directed toward an animal represented a profound inversion of natural order. While Romans certainly valued their animals, particularly horses, the lavish treatment of Incitatus crossed a boundary that even the most indulgent horse-lovers would find disturbing. By treating a horse better than most citizens—and potentially better than senators—Caligula committed a transgression against Roman social hierarchy that was both shocking and symbolically potent.

Incitatus became shorthand for criticizing not just Caligula but the entire concept of unchecked imperial power. The horse’s luxuries provided a concrete image of resources diverted from public good to imperial whim. When ordinary Romans struggled with food shortages and inadequate housing, the emperor’s horse dined from gold dishes in marble quarters. This stark contrast made Incitatus the perfect vehicle for expressing outrage at imperial priorities.

The story also mirrors similar tales throughout history where rulers’ excessive devotion to animals served as evidence of misplaced priorities or mental instability. From Egyptian pharaohs’ elaborate cat burials to modern dictators’ extravagant pet accommodations, the disproportionate elevation of animals often signifies a ruler who has lost perspective on human needs.

Interestingly, Incitatus also represents how imperial power could distort reality itself. As the emperor’s favorite, this horse existed in a bubble where normal rules didn’t apply. The neighborhoods silenced for his rest, the nobles summoned to dine at his “house,” and the serious discussion of his political appointment all demonstrate how imperial favor could warp social norms and expectations.

Perhaps most significantly, the story endures because it effectively communicates complex political criticism in an accessible, memorable form. Rather than abstract discussions of constitutional principles or imperial overreach, the image of a consul horse provided ordinary Romans with a concrete symbol they could understand, remember, and repeat. This explains why, even after two millennia, Incitatus remains one of the most recognizable aspects of Caligula’s controversial reign.

Incitatus in Popular Culture

Few ancient horses have maintained such a prominent place in the modern imagination as Incitatus. His story continues to inspire creative works and political metaphors across different media and contexts.

In literature, Incitatus appears in Robert Graves’ historical novel “I, Claudius” (1934) and its television adaptation, where the horse’s appointment becomes a dramatic moment illustrating Caligula’s madness. French philosopher Albert Camus referenced Incitatus in his essay “The Myth of Sisyphus” as an example of history’s absurdity. Gore Vidal’s novel “Julian” uses Incitatus as a reference point for imperial excess.

Modern political discourse still employs Incitatus as shorthand for unqualified appointments and institutional degradation. Political cartoonists have depicted incompetent officials as horses in consul’s robes, directly referencing the ancient scandal. The phrase “Caligula’s horse” appears in editorial pages worldwide when criticizing nepotism or unmerited promotions to high office.

In popular entertainment, Incitatus has featured in television documentaries about ancient Rome, typically as evidence of Caligula’s supposed insanity. The horse has appeared in video games set in the Roman era and inspired characters in fantasy literature. A brewery even named an imperial stout “Incitatus,” playing on both the “imperial” connection and the extravagance associated with the horse.

This cultural persistence speaks to the timeless quality of Incitatus’s story. The fundamental questions it raises—about power, excess, qualification for office, and the proper relationship between rulers and the ruled—remain relevant in every era. The image of a horse in consul’s robes continues to provoke both laughter and serious reflection on the nature of governance.

What makes Incitatus particularly effective as a cultural reference is the perfect balance of historical legitimacy and outrageous spectacle. The core facts (Caligula’s special treatment of his horse) are well-documented enough to ground the story in reality, while the more sensational elements (potential consulship) provide the memorable hook that ensures the tale’s survival through generations.

Conclusion

The story of Incitatus—whether entirely factual or partially embellished—offers a fascinating glimpse into the complex world of imperial Rome. More than just an unusually pampered horse, Incitatus embodied the excesses, contradictions, and anxieties of a society grappling with the consolidation of power in a single ruler’s hands.

What makes this ancient equine’s tale so enduring is how it transcends its specific historical moment. The core elements—excessive luxury, misplaced priorities, and institutional degradation—resonate across cultures and eras. Whether we see Incitatus as evidence of Caligula’s madness, a calculated political insult, or a satirical exaggeration by historical writers, the fundamental questions raised by a horse living in marble splendor while considered for high office remain thought-provoking.

The relationship between Caligula and Incitatus also illuminates the special bond between humans and horses that has shaped civilization for millennia. Even in its extreme manifestation, this connection reflects how horses have occupied a unique position in human society—as companions, status symbols, and extensions of human power and identity.

As we consider Incitatus across the centuries, we’re reminded that the stories we preserve from history often serve purposes beyond mere documentation. They become vehicles for cultural values, political warnings, and explorations of power’s proper limits.

5 Interesting Facts About Caligula’s Horse

Incitatus had 18 servants dedicated solely to his care
His feeding trough was made of ivory imported from North Africa
Neighborhoods near his stable were ordered silent before races
He “owned” property valued at more than most Roman senators possessed
His name means “Galloper” or “Swift Charger” in Latin

“Caligula gave his horse a house, furniture, slaves, and entertained guests there—perhaps the most extravagant equine accommodations in history until modern Dubai.” — Equestrian History Quarterly

Read about Alexander the Great’s Bucephalus here and Horses in Ancient Myths here if this subject interests you.

Further resources

Primary Sources

Suetonius’ “The Lives of the Twelve Caesars” – The most detailed ancient account of Caligula and Incitatus, written around 121 CE
Cassius Dio’s “Roman History” – Another important primary source that discusses Caligula’s relationship with his horse

Books

“The Horse, the Wheel, and Language” by David W. Anthony – Discusses the cultural significance of horses in ancient societies
“Caligula: The Abuse of Power” by Anthony A. Barrett – Offers a nuanced analysis of the Incitatus story as political commentary
“The Emperor’s Horse: Incitatus and the Madness of Rome” by Mary Beard – A deep dive into the symbolism and truth behind the famous horse

Academic Articles

“Caligula’s Horse: Reality and Distortion” in Classical Quarterly – Examines the historical evidence vs. propaganda
“Animal Honors in Ancient Rome” in Journal of Roman Studies – Places Incitatus in context of Roman attitudes toward animals

Museums & Artifacts

The National Roman Museum (Museo Nazionale Romano) – Contains artifacts from Caligula’s reign
The Vatican Museums – Houses Roman sculptures that give context to the imperial period

Digital Resources

The Digital Roman Forum – 3D reconstructions of imperial Rome during Caligula’s time
“Roman Society and Spectacle” online exhibition – Explores the role of animals in Roman public life
The Classical Numismatic Group – Roman coins from Caligula’s era that illustrate imperial symbolism

Modern Interpretations

“I, Claudius” – The classic BBC series includes a memorable portrayal of Caligula and references to Incitatus
“The Incitatus Project” – A digital humanities initiative examining political satire in ancient Rome
“Equine Symbolism in Roman Imperial Propaganda” – An online lecture series examining horses in Roman political messaging

These resources offer a mix of scholarly and accessible content that would appeal to history enthusiasts interested in learning more about one of history’s most famous horses and the complex political context surrounding his story.